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Управленческие модели – это упрощенная картина деловой бизнес-среды.

Любая управленческая модель учитывает лишь те элементы окружающего мира, которые оказывают непосредственное влияние на функционирование конкретной отрасли либо компании, т. е. являются значимыми при решении конкретной задачи. Теми элементами, которые не значимы, в моделях, как правило, пренебрегают. Кроме того, исходя из соображений экономии операционных и аппаратных ресурсов определенному лимитированию подлежит и количество включаемых в нее входных параметров. К примеру, в Бостонской матрице анализируются доли, занимаемые компанией в определенных сегментах рынка, по отношению к рыночным долям конкурентов. При этом анализу подлежат только имеющиеся на рынке продукты и услуги, учет возможности анализа появления новых продуктов или услуг не предусматривается. Аналогично модель БКГ не позволяет анализировать возможные в будущем действия тех или иных участников рынка.

Вывод: нельзя принимать решения, базирующиеся на анализе работы только одной модели.

Каждая управленческая модель несет в себе черты «своей» экономической эпохи. В структуре любой модели, как правило, еще на стадии ее разработки, закладываются определенные предположения, касающиеся экономических условий (как текущих, так и будущих), в рамках которых будет протекать деятельность организации. Смена привычного делового климата, хотя далеко не всегда приводящая к изменению валидности выходных результатов, тем не менее ставит под вопрос степень адекватности данных результатов в новых экономических условиях.

Так, сегодня любой отдельный стартап может внести принципиально существенные коррективы в условия функционирования целого ряда отраслей (в качестве примера можно привести тот же Amazon.com), вследствие чего вполне естественно, что происходящие изменения в определенной мере ограничивают возможности адекватного использования многих «старых» моделей.

В результате, несмотря на сохранение общих принципов решения задач, таких как, например, удержание старых и привлечение новых клиентов путем низкой цены или высокого качества продукции, рассмотренных в рамках обобщенной теории Портера, далеко не означает, что данная модель полностью учитывает особенности именно сегодняшних реалий. Новые технологии и концепции продвижения аналогичной продукции/услуг в кратчайший промежуток времени могут кардинально нарушить позиции ценового лидера. Аналогично организация, специализирующаяся на отдельном виде товара, может быстро утратить свои конкурентные преимущества в случае копирования конкурентами ее продуктовой линейки и сервисного обслуживания.

Вывод: никогда не следует слепо использовать модели, руководствуясь лишь успешностью их применения в прошлом.

(Продолжение см. в уроке 10)

Источник: 20.09.2005, www.franklin-grant.ru

A scan of the internal and external environment is an important part of the strategic planning process. Environmental factors internal to the firm usually can be classified as strengths (S) or weaknesses (W), and those external to the firm can be classified as opportunities (O) or threats (T). Such an analysis of the strategic environment is referred to as a SWOT analysis.

The SWOT analysis provides information that is helpful in matching the firm’s resources and capabilities to the competitive environment in which it operates. As such, it is instrumental in strategy formulation and selection.

SWOT Analysis Framework

Strengths. A firm’s strengths are its resources and capabilities that can be used as a basis for developing a competitive advantage. Examples of such strengths include:

– patents or certain expertise;

– strong brand names;

– good reputation among customers;

– cost advantages from proprietary know-how;

– exclusive access to high grade natural resources;

– favorable access to distribution networks.

Weaknesses. The absence of certain strengths may be viewed as a weakness. For example, each of the following may be considered weaknesses:

– lack of patent protection;

– a weak brand name;

– poor reputation among customers;

– high cost structure;

– lack of access to the best natural resources;

– lack of access to key distribution channels.

In some cases, a weakness may be the flip side of a strength. Take the case in which a firm has a large amount of manufacturing capacity. While this capacity may be considered a strength that competitors do not share, it also may be considered a weakness if the large investment in manufacturing capacity prevents the firm from reacting quickly to changes in the strategic environment.

Opportunities. The external environmental analysis may reveal certain new opportunities for profit and growth. Examples of such opportunities include:

– an unfulfilled customer need;

– arrival of new technologies;

– loosening of regulations;

– removal of international trade barriers.

Threats. Changes in the external environment also may present threats to the firm. Examples of such threats include:

– shift in consumer tastes away from the firm’s products;

– emergence of substitute products;

– new regulations;

– increased trade barriers.

A firm should not necessarily pursue the most lucrative opportunities. Rather, it may have a better chance at developing a competitive edge by identifying a fit between the firm’s strengths and upcoming opportunities. In some cases, the firm can overcome a weakness in order to prepare itself to pursue a compelling opportunity.

To develop strategies that take into account SWOT profile, a matrix of these factors can be constructed.

SWOT Matrix

– S-O strategies pursue opportunities that are a good fit to the company’s strengths.

– W-O strategies overcome weaknesses to pursue opportunities.

– S-T strategies identify ways that the firm can use its strengths to reduce its vulnerability to external threats.

– W-T strategies establish a defensive plan to prevent the firm’s weaknesses from making it highly susceptible to external threats.

Source: www.quickmba.com

To analyze the specific activities through which firms can create a competitive advantage, it is useful to model the firm as a chain of value-creating activities. Michael Porter identified a set of interrelated generic activities common to a wide range of firms. The resulting model is known as the value chain:

Inbound logistics > Operations > Outbound logistics > Marketing & Sales > Service

The goal of these activities is to create value that exceeds the cost of providing the product or service, thus generating a profit margin.

– Inbound logistics include the receiving, warehousing, and inventory control of input materials.

– Operations are the value-creating activities that transform the inputs into the final product.

– Outbound logistics are the activities required to get the finished product to the customer, including warehousing, order fulfillment, etc.

– Marketing & Sales are those activities associated with getting buyers to purchase the product, including channel selection, advertising, pricing, etc.

– Service activities are those that maintain and enhance the product’s value including customer support, after-sale services, etc.

Primary activities may be vital in developing a competitive advantage. For example, logistics activities are critical for a provider of distribution services, and service activities may be the key focus for a firm offering on-site maintenance contracts for office equipment. These five categories are generic and include specific activities that vary by industry.

The primary value chain activities described above are facilitated by support activities. Porter identified four generic categories of support activities, the details of which are industry-specific:

– Procurement – the function of purchasing the raw materials and other inputs used in the value-creating activities.

– Technology Development – includes R&D, process automation, and other technology development used to support the value-chain activities.

– Human Resource Management – the activities associated with recruiting, development and compensation of employees.

– Firm Infrastructure – includes activities such as finance, legal, quality management, etc.

Support activities are often viewed as «overhead», but some firms successfully have used them to develop a competitive advantage, for example, to develop a cost advantage through innovative management of information systems.

In order to better understand the activities for a competitive advantage, one can begin with the generic value chain and then identify the relevant firm-specific activities. Process flows can be mapped, and these flows used to isolate the individual value-creating activities.

Once the discrete activities are defined, linkages between activities should be identified. A linkage exists if the performance or cost of one activity affects that of another. Competitive advantage may be obtained by optimizing and coordinating linked activities.

The value chain also is useful in outsourcing decisions. Understanding the linkages between activities can lead to more optimal make-or-buy decisions that can result in either a cost advantage or a differentiating advantage.

The firm’s value chain links to the value chain of upstream suppliers and downstream buyers. The result is a larger stream of activities known as the value system. The development of a competitive advantage depends not only on the firm-specific value chain, but also on the value system of which the firm is a part.

Source: www.quickmba.com

A PEST Analysis is an analysis of the external macro-environment that affects all firms. PEST is an acronym for the Political, Economic, Social and Technological factors of the external macro-environment. Such external factors are usually beyond the firm’s control and sometimes present themselves as threats. For this reason, some say that «pest» is an appropriate term for these factors. However, changes in the external environment also create new opportunities and the letters sometimes are rearranged to construct the more optimistic term of STEP analysis.

Many macro-environmental factors are country-specific and a PEST analysis will need to be performed for all countries of interest.

Political Analysis

–Political stability

–Risk of military invasion

–Risk of nationalization

–Legal framework for contract enforcement

–Intellectual property protection

–Trade regulations & tariffs

–Favored trading partners

–Anti-trust laws

–Pricing regulations

–Taxation system – tax rates and incentives

–Wage legislation – minimum wage and overtime

–Work week

–Mandatory employee benefits

–Industrial safety regulations

–Product labeling requirements

Economic Analysis

–Type of economic system in countries of operation

–Government intervention in the free market

–Comparative advantages of host country

–Exchange rates and stability of host country currency

–Efficiency of financial markets

–Infrastructure quality

–Skill level of workforce

–Labor costs

–Business cycle stage (e.g. prosperity, recession, recovery)

–Economic growth rate

–Disposable income