Godfreyβs history of the Franks is an even more ideologically biased. In one version, Clovis was baptized even before Constantine the Great was. Clovis was, therefore, more virtuous and beloved of God, just like his people, the Franks, were[65]. In Godfreyβs other versions of Frankish history a more realistic chronology is observed[66]. The Carolingian overthrow of the Merovingians is portrayed as a natural development of a people who could not bear feeble rulers[67]. Godfrey retells the legend of Charlemagne, the main character in all of his works, differently each time. However, aside from the references to Davidβs anointment during Charlemagneβs coronation by God, the most striking element found in Godfreyβs works is the reworked genealogy of Charlemagne. His father remains Pepin the Short (751β758), who is described as a Frank, but his mother Bertrada becomes Berta, the granddaughter of Emperor Heraclius (610β641). As Godfrey states, Charlemagne united the two Trojan lineages, the Frankish and the Roman-Greek, into one, thereby becoming the rightful ruler of the impΓ©rium RomanΕ―m[68]. The rest of Godfreyβs Frankish and German history follows Otto of Freisingβs model[69].
The views of history presented here were not necessarily believed in by anyone outside the court. Moreover, some 'Germanβ authors, that is, northern Germans/Saxons, do not mention these theoretical constructs[70].
The most likely conclusion as to why this is so is that there was no single unified German identity. While Miiller-Mertens proved that the elites of the various peoples we consider German today did have a sense of German identity as early as the 1110s[71], it seems that every author related himself firstly to his locality and region, and only then to the larger regnum Teutonicum, regnum Francorum and impΓ©rium RomanΕ―m. As the Hohenstaufen court followed an agenda of conquest in Italy and the restoration of imperial rights in general, it was only logical that the courtly histories would take up more elements of Frankish and Roman histories and identities. In Italian eyes it was much easier when it came to defining the empire: it had always been and would always be only Roman[72]. The opponents of the Hohenstaufen who appear as characters in the works of the Hohenstaufen supporters retain this distinction. For example, the Milanese are allowed to insult Barbarossa as merely a German in the Carmen de gestis[73].
To sum up, the imperial court espoused a German, Roman and Frankish identity. Roman because the impΓ©rium itselfwas Roman, Frankish because Charlemagne took the impΓ©rium away from the Greeks, and German because Otto the Great won the impΓ©rium from the Langobards, thereby excluding the French from Charlemagneβs legacy, the empire. While a German national identity was definitely in the background of this ideology, the imperial element is so much more present that it is more appropriate to conclude by saying that a Roman imperial identity existed at the court of the kings of Germany.
* * *Π£ΠΠ 94(430).024
BE ΠΠ ΠΠ Π‘Π£ΠΠΠ Π‘ΠΠ. ΠΠ°Π³ΠΈΡΡΡΠ°Π½Ρ, Π¦Π΅Π½ΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠΉ ΠΠ²ΡΠΎΠΏΠ΅ΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΡΠ½ΠΈΠ²Π΅ΡΡΠΈΡΠ΅Ρ, ΠΡΠ΄Π°ΠΏΠ΅ΡΡ, ΠΠ΅Π½Π³ΡΠΈΡ.
VEDRΓN SULOVSKY. ΠΠ student, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary. E-mail: vedransulovsky(o)hotmail.com
ΠΠΠ ΠΠΠΠ‘ΠΠΠ, Π ΠΠΠ‘ΠΠΠ Π Π€Π ΠΠΠΠ‘ΠΠΠ: ΠΠΠ¦ΠΠΠΠΠΠ¬ΠΠ«Π ΠΠΠ Π ΠΠ’ΠΠΠ« ΠΠΠΠ₯Π Π ΠΠΠΠΠ₯ ΠΠΠΠΠΠ¨Π’ΠΠ£Π€ΠΠΠΠ (1138β1190) Π ΠΠ₯ ΠΠΠΠ―ΠΠΠ ΠΠ ΠΠΠΠΠ’ΠΠΠ£
Π ΡΡΠ΅Π΄Π½Π΅Π²Π΅ΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ ΠΠ²ΡΠΎΠΏΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΡΡ ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ»ΠΈ ΡΠ΅ ΠΆΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ, ΡΡΠΎ ΠΈ Π² ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ: ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° Π½Π°Π±Π»ΡΠ΄Π°Π»ΠΎΡΡ ΡΡΠΎΠ»ΠΊΠ½ΠΎΠ²Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π½Π°ΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠ΅ΠΉ, ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΈΠ· ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΡ Π°ΠΊΡΡΠ°Π»ΠΈΠ·ΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈΡΡ Π²ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ Π·Π° Π²Π΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΡΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ, ΠΏΠΎΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΠΎΠ²Π°Π²ΡΠΈΠΌ Π·Π° ΠΏΠ°Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ Π‘ΠΎΠ²Π΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π‘ΠΎΡΠ·Π°. ΠΡΠΎΠ±Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΠΈΠ½ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅ΡΠ½ΡΠΌ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΡΠ°Π²Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ Π‘Π²ΡΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ Π ΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΈ, ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ½Π°ΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π³ΠΎΡΡΠ΄Π°ΡΡΡΠ²Π°, ΠΊΠΎΠ»Π΅Π±Π°Π²ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΎΡΡ ΠΌΠ΅ΠΆΠ΄Ρ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ, ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡΠΌΠΈ. Π ΡΠΎ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΡ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ Π½Π΅ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΡΠ΅Π»ΠΈ, Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, ΠΠ°ΡΠ» ΠΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΠΈΠ»ΠΈ ΠΡΡΠΎΠ½ ΠΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΈΠΉ, ΠΎΡΠ΄Π°Π²Π°Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ, Π΄ΡΡΠ³ΠΈΠ΅ β ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΈΠ΅, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΡΠ΄ΠΎΠ²ΠΈΠΊ ΠΠ»Π°Π³ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΈΠ²ΡΠΉ ΠΈΠ»ΠΈ ΠΡΡΠΎΠ½ III, ΠΏΠΎΠ»Π°Π³Π°Π»ΠΈ, ΡΡΠΎ ΡΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΎΡΠΎΠ·Π½Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠ½ΠΎ ΠΈΠΌΠ΅ΡΡ Π·Π½Π°ΡΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΡΡ.
ΠΠ΄Π½Π°ΠΊΠΎ, Π½Π°ΡΠΈΠ½Π°Ρ Ρ 1000 Π³. ΡΡΠΎ ΠΎΡΠΏΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π°Π»ΠΎΡΡ ΠΈΡΠ°Π»ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΠΏΠΈΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠΌΠΈ, ΡΡΠΎ ΠΈΡΠΎΠ³Π΅ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ²Π΅Π»ΠΎ ΠΊ ΠΎΡΠΊΠ°Π·Ρ ΠΎΡ Π ΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Ρ Π°ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠ΅ΡΠ° ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈ ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΠ»ΠΈΠΊΡΠ΅ Π·Π° ΠΈΠ½Π²Π΅ΡΡΠΈΡΡΡΡ Π² 1070 Π³Π³. Π‘ ΡΠ΅Ρ ΠΏΠΎΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΌΠΈΠ½ Teutonicus Π²ΡΡΠ΅Π» Π½Π° Π°Π²Π°Π½Π³Π°ΡΠ΄ Π΅Π²ΡΠΎΠΏΠ΅ΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ Π΄ΠΈΠΏΠ»ΠΎΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ Π΄Π»Ρ ΡΠΌΠ°Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π±ΡΠ΄ΡΡΠΈΡ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ² Π ΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΈ. ΠΠΎΡΡΠ΅ΠΏΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π°Π²ΡΠΎΡΡ Π½Π°ΡΠ°Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ±Π΅Π³Π°ΡΡ ΠΊ Π½Π΅ΠΌΡ, Ρ ΠΎΡΡ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ²ΠΎΠ½Π°ΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎ Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΈΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΠ·ΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΠ°ΠΏΠΈΡΡΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π»ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΡΡ. ΠΠΎ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΠΈ ΠΠΎΠ½ΡΠ°Π΄Π° III (1138β1152) Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠ°Ρ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡ ΡΠΆΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΡΠ½ΠΎ Π²ΠΎΡΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΠΈΠΌΠ°Π»Π°ΡΡ Π³Π΅ΡΠΌΠ°Π½ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ Π°Π²ΡΠΎΡΠ°ΠΌΠΈ, ΠΎΠ΄Π½Π°ΠΊΠΎ ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠ°Ρ ΠΈ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΡΠΊΠ°Ρ Π½Π΅ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈ ΠΏΠΎΠ»Π½ΠΎΡΡΡΡ Π·Π°Π±ΡΡΡ.
Π ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΡΡΡΠΈΡ 50 Π»Π΅Ρ ΡΠ°Π·Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΡΠ΅ Π½Π°ΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠ΅ Π½Π°ΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Ρ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈ ΠΊΠΎΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ΅Π½Ρ ΡΠ°Π·Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ Π»ΡΠ΄ΡΠΌΠΈ. ΠΡΠ»ΠΈ ΠΠΎΠ½ΡΠ°Π΄ III ΠΈ Π€ΡΠΈΠ΄ΡΠΈΡ I (1152β1190) Π²ΡΡΠΊΠ°Π·ΡΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈ Π±ΠΎΠ»Π΅Π΅ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π²Π·Π³Π»ΡΠ΄Ρ, ΡΠΎ ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠ°Ρ ΠΊΠΎΠΌΠΌΡΠ½Π° ΠΈ ΠΏΠ°ΠΏΡΡΠ²ΠΎ ΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π»ΠΈ ΡΠ°Π·Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΡΠ΅ ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ. ΠΠΎΡΠΏΡΠΈΡΡΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΉ ΡΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΈ Π΄ΡΡΠ³ΠΈΡ ΠΈΡΠ°Π»ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΊΠΈΡ Π°Π²ΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ² ΡΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΡΠ°Π·Π½ΠΈΠ»ΠΎΡΡ: ΡΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ½Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΈ Π½Π°Π·ΡΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΡΠ° Π ΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ, ΠΎΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠ΅ β Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ Π²Π°ΡΠ²Π°ΡΠΎΠΌ. ΠΠ½ Π½Π΅ ΠΌΠΎΠ³ Π±ΡΡΡ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΠΎΠΌ, ΠΈΠ±ΠΎ ΠΊ ΡΡΠΎΠΌΡ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΠΈ ΡΡΠΎ ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎΠ·Π½Π°ΡΠ½ΠΎ ΠΎΠ·Π½Π°ΡΠ°Π»ΠΎ ΡΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΈ ΠΈΡΠ°Π»ΡΡΠ½ΡΠ΅Π² β ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΡΠ·. Π£ Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΡ Π°Π²ΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ², ΡΠ΅ΠΌ Π½Π΅ ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π΅, ΡΠΎΠΌΠ½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ Π½Π΅ Π²ΠΎΠ·Π½ΠΈΠΊΠ°Π»ΠΎ: ΠΎΠ½ΠΈ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈ ΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ, ΠΈ ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ, ΠΈ Π΄Π°ΠΆΠ΅ ΠΈΠ½ΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ, Π² Π·Π°Π²ΠΈΡΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΡΠΈ ΠΎΡ ΡΠΈΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ.
ΠΠ»ΡΡΠ΅Π²ΡΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π°: ΠΠ΅ΡΠΌΠ°Π½ΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ; Π€ΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ; Π ΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ; ΠΠΎΠ½ΡΠ°Π΄ III (1138β1190); Π€ΡΠΈΠ΄ΡΠΈΡ I (1152β1190); Π ΠΈΠΌ; ΠΏΠ°ΠΏΡΡΠ²ΠΎ; ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡ; ΡΠΎ-ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡ; ΡΠΎΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ½ΠΈΡΠ°ΡΡΠ°Ρ ΠΈΠ΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡ.
GERMAN, ROMAN AND FRANKISH: THE NATIONAL NARRATIVES OF THE EARLY HOHENSTAUFEN ERA (1138β1190) AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON HIGH POLITICS
Just as modern Europe has contested national identities, some of which have been challenged in the great upheaval following the fall of the Soviet Union, so did Medieval Europe have many similar phenomena. A particularly interesting case is the Holy Roman Empire, as it was multi-national state which wavered between the Frankish, Roman and German identities. While some rulers, for example Charlemagne and Otto the Great, thought the Frankish identity to be the most important one, other, such as Louis the Pious or Otto III, believed that the Roman identity should be only relevant one.
This, however, had been contested by Italian writers since 1000, eventually leading to a renunciation of the Empireβs Roman and Imperial character by Gregory VII in the 1070s. Since then the term Teutonicus rose to the forefront of European diplomacy as a disparagement of the would-be Roman emperors. German authors slowly started using the term themselves, even though it was primarily used by pro-Papal writers at first. By the time of Conrad III (1138β1152), however, the German identity was commonly accepted by German writers, although the Frankish and Roman identities had still not been completely forgotten.
During the following half century, differing national narratives were implicitly accepted by various persons. While Conrad III and Frederick I (1152β1190) exhibited a more Frankish-based political worldview, the Roman Commune and the Papacy embraced two very different Roman identities. Among other Italian authors the rulers were perceived in markedly different fashions: imperialists called the emperor a Roman, while others called him a German barbarian. A Frank he could not be, as by this point this meant only the French β in Italian eyes. For German authors, however, no doubt existed: they were both German and Frankish, and sometimes even Roman, depending on the situation.
Keywords: German; Frankish; Roman; Conrad III (1138β1190); Frederick I (1152β1190); Rome, the Papacy; identity; coidentity; contested identity.
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14. Otto of Freising. βOttonis Gesta Friderici I. Imperatori", MGH SRG, Usum scholarum separatim editi 46, Ottonis et Rahewini Gesta Friderici I. Imperatoris, hrsg. Georg Waitz und Bernhard von Simson. Hannoverae et Lipsiae: impensis bibliopolii Hahniani 1912. 385 s. P. 1β161.
15. Rahewin of Freising. βRahewini Gesta Friderici I. imperatoris", MGH SRG in usum scholarum separatim editi 46, Ottonis et Rahewini Gesta Friderici I. imperatoris, Ed. Georg Waitz and Bernhard von Simson. Hannoverae et Lipsiae: impensis bibliopolii Hahniani. P. 162β346.
ΠΡΡΠΈΡΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π³ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΎΡΡ ΠΈ ΠΈΡ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π²ΠΎΠ΄ Π² Β«ΠΠ½ΠΈΠ³Π΅ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΡΠ° Π‘ΠΈΠ³ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΡΠ½Π΄Π°Β» ΠΠ±Π΅ΡΡ Π°ΡΠ΄Π° ΠΠΈΠ½Π΄Π΅ΠΊΠ΅: ΡΠ°ΡΠΏΡΠΎΡΡΡΠ°Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ½Π°ΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π΄ΠΈΡΠΊΡΡΡΠ°
ΠΠ°ΡΠΌΠΎΠ² Π. Π.
ΠΡΡΠΈΡΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π²ΠΎΠΉΠ½Ρ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΡΠ°Π²Π»ΡΡΡ ΡΠΎΠ±ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎΠΉ ΠΏΡΠΈΡΠΎΠ΄Ρ, ΠΏΠΎΡΠΎΠΌΡ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π΄ ΡΠ΅ΠΌ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΡΠΈΡΡΡΠΏΠΈΡΡ ΠΊ ΡΠ°ΡΡΠ½ΠΎΠΌΡ Π²ΠΎΠΏΡΠΎΡΡ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΠΎΠΌΡ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ²ΡΡΠ΅Π½ ΠΌΠΎΠΉ Π΄ΠΎΠΊΠ»Π°Π΄, Ρ Ρ ΠΎΡΠ΅Π» Π±Ρ ΡΡ Π΅ΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΡΠ½ΠΎ ΠΎΠ±ΡΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ, Π² ΠΊΠ°ΠΊΠΎΠΌ Π²ΠΈΠ΄Π΅ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΡΠ°Π²Π°Π» ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π΄ ΡΡΠ΅Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ XIXβXXI Π²Π². ΡΡΠΎΡ ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΠ»ΠΈΠΊΡ ΠΌΠ΅ΠΆΠ΄Ρ Π‘ΠΈΠ³ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΡΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠΌ ΠΡΠΊΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ±ΡΡΠ³ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΠΈ Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Π΄Π°Π½Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ. Π€ΡΠ°Π½ΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΠΊ ΠΠ°Π»Π°ΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ, ΠΏΡΠΈΠ·Π½Π°Π½Π½ΡΠΉ ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΌ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ Π½Π°ΡΠΊΠΈ, ΡΡΠΈΡΠ°Π», ΡΡΠΎ Π² 1419 Π³. Β«ΠΏΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈ Π²ΡΠ΅ ΡΠ΅Ρ ΠΈ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈ Π΅Π΄ΠΈΠ½Ρ Π² ΡΡΠ΅Π±ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠΈ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΡ Π² ΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠ²ΠΈ, Π° ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΆΠ΅ ΠΌΠ΅ΡΡΠΈ ΠΈ Π²ΠΎΡΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΎΠ²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ³Π°Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ Π½Π°ΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΈΒ»[74] β ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ»Π΅Π΄Π½ΠΈΠΌ ΠΎΠ½ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ΡΠ°Π·ΡΠΌΠ΅Π²Π°Π» ΠΌΠ΅ΡΡΡ Π·Π° ΡΠΎΠΆΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΠΏΠΎΠ²Π΅Π΄Π½ΠΈΠΊΠ° Π―Π½Π° ΠΡΡΠ° Π² ΠΠΎΠ½ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΠ΅ Π² 1415 Π³. ΠΈ Π·Π°ΠΊΡΠ΅ΠΏΠ»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π° Π½Π° ΠΈΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΠ·ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ° Π² ΠΏΡΠΎΠΏΠΎΠ²Π΅Π΄ΠΈ, Π·Π°ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠ΄Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠ²Π΅ ΠΈ ΡΡΠ΄ΠΎΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΠ·Π²ΠΎΠ΄ΡΡΠ²Π΅. Π‘ ΡΠΎΡΠΊΠΈ Π·ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ Β«ΠΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠΈ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π½Π°ΡΠΎΠ΄Π° Π² Π§Π΅Ρ ΠΈΠΈ ΠΈ ΠΠΎΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΠΈΒ» β Π½Π°ΡΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠΉ ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠΈ, Π½Π°ΠΏΠΈΡΠ°Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ ΠΠ°Π»Π°ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ Π² ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π΅ XIX Π². β ΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΡΠ΅Ρ -Π³ΡΡΠΈΡ, Ρ. Π΅. ΡΠ΅Ρ β ΡΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ½Π½ΠΈΠΊ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ²Π½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΡ, Π²ΠΎΠ΅Π²Π°Π» Ρ Π‘ΠΈΠ³ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΡΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠΌ ΠΈ Π΅Π³ΠΎ Π²Π°ΡΡΠ°Π»Π°ΠΌΠΈ ΠΈΠ· Π²Π΅Π½Π³Π΅ΡΡΠΊΠΈΡ ΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΡ Π·Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π»Ρ.
ΠΠ°ΡΠΊΡΠΈΡΡΡΠΊΠ°Ρ ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠΎΠ³ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΡ XX Π².[75] Π²ΡΠ²Π΅Π»Π° Π½Π° ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ²ΡΠΉ ΠΏΠ»Π°Π½ ΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠΉ ΠΌΠΎΠΌΠ΅Π½Ρ, Π½Π΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ Π·Π°ΡΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½Π½ΡΠΉ Ρ ΠΠ°Π»Π°ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ. ΠΡΠ΅ΡΡΡΡΠ½ΠΈΠ½-ΡΠ΅Ρ , ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠ°Ρ Π³ΠΎΡΠΎΠ΄ΡΠΊΠ°Ρ Π±Π΅Π΄Π½ΠΎΡΠ° ΠΈ ΡΠ»ΡΠΆΠΈΠ»ΠΎΠ΅ Π΄Π²ΠΎΡΡΠ½ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ Π²ΠΎΠ΅Π²Π°Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ² Π‘ΠΈΠ³ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΡΠ½Π΄Π°, ΠΏΠΎΠ΄Π΄Π΅ΡΠΆΠΈΠ²Π°Π΅ΠΌΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΡΠ·ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΌ Π³ΠΎΡΠΎΠ΄ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΠΏΠ°ΡΡΠΈΡΠΈΠ°ΡΠΎΠΌ ΠΈ ΠΊΡΡΠΏΠ½ΠΎΠΉ, ΠΏΠΎΡΠΎΠ΄Π½Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ Ρ Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΡΠΎΠ΄Π°ΠΌΠΈ Π·Π½Π°ΡΡΡ. Π ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠΎΠ³ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ XIXβXX Π²Π². Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΡΠΎ ΠΏΠΎΠ½ΠΈΠΌΠ°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π³ΡΡΠΈΡΡΠΊΠΈΡ Π²ΠΎΠΉΠ½ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΡΡΠΌΠΎΠ»ΠΈΠ½Π΅ΠΉΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ°: Π±ΠΎΡΡΠ±Ρ ΡΠ΅Ρ Π° Ρ Π½Π΅ΠΌΡΠ΅ΠΌ, ΡΠ΅ΡΠΎΡΠΌΠ°ΡΠΎΡΠ°-Π³ΡΡΠΈΡΠ° Ρ ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΠ΅ΡΠ²Π°ΡΠΎΡΠΎΠΌ-ΠΊΠ°ΡΠΎΠ»ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠΌ, ΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Ρ ΡΠ³Π½Π΅ΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΌ.